Module 4: Information Processing: Long-Term Memory and Retrieval

Brain Friendly Techniques for Improving Long-Term Memory

Teachers are charged with the responsibilities of proving the experiences which encourages learning and application.  Introduction of new concepts into this process requires skill.  How do we get our students to remember new concepts?  This article focuses on five important strategies to ensure students retention of new concepts; connect to prior knowledge, develop personal relevance, make sense, elaborate on key concepts and rehearse retrieval cues.  (Friedich-King, 2001)

Learning new ideas and concepts is not easy.  In order to understand new concepts the brain according to Piaget it goes through the process of assimilation.  If students are to grasp the new information it is helpful to create experiences that utilize what a student already knows, Piaget would say that this is enlarging a student’s schema.   

Next the information has to have some means of balance or equilibrium, how do we know that the concept makes sense.  The students need to demonstrate that the sensory experience has a foundation to build upon.  Research in neuroscience argues that teachers should increase the strength of connections between neurons that participate in the encoding experience because these are experiences are the ones that the students will retain in the long term (Friedich-King, 2001). 

Teachers are concerned with mastery of key concepts. In order for students to commit information to long term memory (LTM) there needs to be some vehicle which provides the connection from short term memory (STM) to LTM.   King-Friedich argues that teachers can facilitate the data to move from the working memory or short term memory by elaborating on new concepts.  Teachers who elaborate on new concepts are likely to ensure that students retention of new material (p. 77).  Teachers can use techniques such as painting or drawing illustrations that refer to the new material, the students may create poems or journal about the concepts. All of these tools create the path for long term memory storage.  

The article provides several tools for teachers that are concerned with mastery.  The article is has practical information for use in the classroom.  The strategies outlined have a track record of success.  Memory in Educational setting goes into deeper depth of how to transfer information from STM or working memory to LTM

Memory in Educational Setting

Classroom teachers are consistently focused not just with teaching content but creating meaningful experiences that provide students with tools not just to understand new concepts but the ability to apply them. In order for teachers to be effective in achieving this goal requires that the information not remain in the short term memory.  Cognitive psychologists and educators share a common goal: both want to understand how to promote long-term learning and memory. Both are interested in the answers to questions like “how should people study material in order to remember it after time has passed?” and “what causes people to forget material they once knew?”(Marsh, 2011).  If knowledge is to be retained over long periods of time, then the goal of learning must be to increase storage strength, not momentary accessibility.  Marsh and Butler refers to the concept of “desirable difficulties” (Marsh, 2011).  The main idea is that introducing difficulties during learning will result in superior long-term retention because the greatest gains in storage strength occur when retrieval strength is high.  Teacher who instead of arranging the conditions of learning to be easier and faster for the learner, educators should introduce difficulties into the learning process in order to promote long-term retention of knowledge(Marsh, 2011) (p.4).  Creating conditions that slow learning down is a radical change for most educators. 

Marsh and Butler then argues that information needs to be presented so that the learner can extract meaning, similar to Jenne King-Friedich of making sure that the information makes sense.   Marsh and Butler focuses on the type of processing instead of the intent to learn.  They look at several learning strategies, two for processing which require encoding of information, item-specific processing and relational processing.  For most educational tasks, students will benefit from strategies that encourage them to extract the meaning of to-be-remembered information.  Marsh and Butler lays our theoretical ideas that allow teacher to implement strategies for specific educational goals.  The strategies are desirable difficulty, engage in process that allow meaningful extraction or retrieval and finally relational processing or transfer processing.  (Marsh, 2011).  How does this all work?  Marsh and Butler elaborates on this model as out lined below. 

Learning Strategies for Studying Material

Strategy teacher Implemented	Theoretical Ideas	Specific Educational Activities
Advance Organizer Aimed at providing a larger conceptual framework for the to-be-learned material; They help the reader to understand the upcoming material but do not contain the exact same information Advance organizers work by providing a framework or schema for integrating the incoming information Help students learn disorganized material but not organized material Work primarily by improving the encoding of the to-be-learned o   material.	Engaging in processes that emphasize meaning extraction (Retrieval). Relational Processing; Matching learning processes to the processes needed to excel on the final criterial task (i.e. transfer-appropriate processing Introduce a desirable difficulty	Highlighting/underlining o   promote memory Caution too much highlighting may cause reduction in deep processing. A better strategy is to select just one sentence to highlight per paragraph, as this likely increases both deep processing and relational processing as sentences Note Taking effect on memory o   Initial encoding o   Order involving storage Caution note taking may even hurt performance in such situations because students must pay attention to both the lecture and note taking, and dividing attention during encoding impairs memory o   help students to extract the “big picture o   promotes transfer

They emphasize that these strategies are nothing without feedback and spacing.  The learner must know how if they are performing the desired task correctly.  The method of feedback is what is questioned.  How does a teacher provide meaningful feedback, when is it appropriate as well as timing.  Marsh and Butler carefully explain how feedback should be provided to affect continuous learning.  Spacing as outlined by Marsh and Butler is a method to ensure retention.  Spacing can be as short as 30 seconds or as long as necessary to retain the information.  The point is that with both of these if a learner is given information they need to be given the opportunity to retrieve the information.  This information then needs to have feedback followed by an opportunity for the learner to revisit or retrieve and apply the information at a later time.  To facilitate this task the learner should be assessed periodically. 

The strategies and applications discussed “Memory in Educational Setting,” again provides practical and tangible techniques for teachers to assist student learning and long term memory retention.  The following article “Secrets of a Mind-Gamer,” explores a concept I am not sure how teachers would implement in the classroom. 

SECRETS OF A MIND-GAMER

This article talks about the ability to train the mind to efficiently remember information.  Josha Foer claims that memory training and mastery can be accomplished by anyone is contrary to the behaviorist perception theory that after a certain age you are not able to learn new concepts.  Therefore if Foer argument is valid then these techniques should work for anyone.  Virtually all the details we have about classical memory training — indeed, nearly all the memory tricks in the competitive mnemonist’s arsenal — can be traced to a short Latin rhetoric textbook called “Rhetorica ad Herennium,” written sometime between 86 and 82 B.C(Foer, 2011). It is the only comprehensive discussion of the memory techniques attributed to Simonides to have survived into the Middle Ages. The techniques described in this book were widely practiced in the ancient and medieval worlds. This article although fascinating I am not sure of practical application for a traditional classroom setting.  I teaching student to remember is necessary but where does it fit into curriculum?   

I did find the video by NOVA video “How Memory Works,” in this video there was a reference to a chemical, PKM zeta, the chemical that is related to memory, to be quite interesting and how does this play into the retrieval with children?  And adult how does this chemical impact Alzheimer?

Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching

Of all the article this one although factual it is quite sad.  There are glimpses of constructivist teach there is still no real application.  Two major components of PBL are the explicit teaching of problem-solving strategies in the form of the hypothetic co-deductive method of reasoning (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980),and teaching of basic con tent in the context of a specific caseor instance. Proponents argue that problem-centered education

Learning as Informational Processors: Legacies and Limitations of Educational Psychology’s Second Metaphor

The article “Learning as Informational Processors: Legacies and Limitations of Educational Psychology’s Second Metaphor,” evolved from the concept of humans ability to make meaning of information.  The roots of this concept is in the constructivist believe that humans are knowledge constructors. Teachers are cognitive guides for academic tasks and learner are sense makers (Mayer, 1996).  Information processing psychology believes that humans are information processors or that man is a machine. The field view that the mind can be analyze into mental processes and mental representation and that any cognitive task can be analyze into a series of information-processing stages.  Third learning involves the acquisition of knowledge.  There are three themes discussed here by Mayer; the mind as an information-processing system, cognition as applying cognitive processes, learning as the acquisition of mental representations.  (Mayer, 1996).  It is interesting that Mayer points out that the description of man as a human-computer took twenty years to make the connection of cognitive learning.  Man is a biological, emotional and social being, all of which affect how we learn or process information.  I wonder if this literal definition of man as computer, dose more to reduce the credibility of the field of cognitive learning. 

The article however does point out that by combining constructivism with learning processing it provide the field of psychology with the means to take a scientific path.  There is empirical data that supports the field.  The problem however as the article points out is the political ramification.  The article argues that the politics reject the science behind the learning.(Mayer, 1996)  The field of learning is heading more toward the position of popular belief. Hey maybe learning styles may want to look at joining this field.

Mayer, R. (1996). Learning as Informational Processors: Legacies and Limitations of Educational Psychology’s Second Metaphor Educational Psychology, 31, 151-161.

In Touch with Reality

This article begins with an in-depth evaluation and to some extent a justification for stereotypes.  I have two arguments regarding this article.  The first has to do with the power of suggestion and the other what is the root of these stereotypes, is simply the need to categorize things, I wonder if the two are not linked.  Is this free will or an obligatory agreement?  What is about man that feeds a need to marginalize other, why is there justification for perception of negative stereotypes?  How does the power of suggestion play into the development and perpetuation of stereotypes? The article may offer some explanation, in it the author states that language does affect our thoughts, rather than just labeling for labeling sake. (Pinker, 2002).   He further states that language is a conduit by which we share our thoughts and intentions; it is how we acquire our knowledge and values.  This article I found quite challenging, the approach argues several linguistic concepts.  My concern is how the words are interpreted by the mind.    Is the mind not influenced by suggestions?  If I point out someone’s shortcoming for instant does that not become the defining attribute of that person.  What would happen if instead of stereotyping African Americans as bad credit risk, superstitious and most likely to be on welfare (p.3), along with many others not listed; instead classify African Americans for their ability to overcome adversity, for craftsmanship, their religious beliefs and loyalty to family?   

The author points out that language convey both literal meaning as well as attitude.  (Pinker, 2002).  In regards to how students learn what teacher do with the language and attitude as we present information has enormous potential or extreme ramifications.  The author talks about stereotypes and the role they have played in limiting positions for women and African Americans.  All of this relates back to our attitude.  I am not sure if there is just this overwhelming need to omit perceptions that are affiliated with the use of certain terms or the naiveté that some words have evolved to mean something more than it original meaning.  He states “The real struggle is over the power to control images.”

Pinker, S. (2002). In Touch With Reality Know Thyself (pp. 197-218).

Cognition and Instruction: Their Historic Meeting Within Educational Psychology Mayer 1992

Dr. Mayer provides an excellent analysis of the transition of cognitive learning.  Within the article he gives an indepth analysis of the evolution of cognitive theory.  He is focuses on the learners active role in instruction. (Mayer, 1992)

Mayer explanation of why educational instruction evolved based on rote memorization, which some still hold too unfortunately, to understanding why students make mistakes is transforming our schools.  There is this understanding that students are active in the learning and yet there are those that resist change.  How do we effectively implement changes that ultimately impact our students regardless of economic status?  The learning as a response acquisition though not effective is still being taught. Maybe it goes beyond the classroom there are still parents that believe in the rote systems of learning.  Drill and practice is what they were taught and therefore have a difficult time of letting go of what is familiar. But educators as well consistently have spelling test, which I personally have a hard time giving up, weekly.  I wonder if the problem is that we have not given our teacher enough tools, support and resources to effectively implement a fully cognitive learning environment?  Dr. Mayer discusses a cognitive metaphor where the learner is viewed as the processor of information and the teacher is a dispenser of information where the curriculum becomes the focus of instruction.(Mayer, 1992).  Mayer then goes on to explain that the goal of instruction is to increase the learners knowledge that is measurable. 

His learning as knowledge construction is a page out Piaget’s hand book.  Here he states that learning involves selecting relevant information and interpreting it through existing knowledge.  He does however holds the teacher accountable for children not achieving their full potential, in that we do not provide the tools and experiences for students to construct useful learning strategies(Mayer, 1992).  Teacher still must play a vital role for our students to sustain and increase their schemas.  Mayer lets us know that there are resources available, Resnick provides instructional aspect of learning that are useful.  Mayer discusses successful strategies in reading, writing and math.  The hope that instruction will universally reflect the successful practices that are accepted must happen.  Our students are depending on it.

Mayer, R. (1992). Cognition and Instruction: Their Historic Meeting Within Educational Psychology. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 405-412.

Learning Styles Concepts and Evidence

Learning Styles Concepts and Evidence

Learning Styles Concepts and Evidence begins by concluding based on the limited amount of educational resources that our time and money would be better off placed in educational practices that have strong evidence base.   Given the tough economic times that everyone is facing is it time to throw the concept of  intervention of instructions based on learning styles? This effort is in responses to the growing popular belief that we could best serve our students by concentrating our efforts towards implementing learning styles assessments into educational practices. (Pashler, 2009). I am not so sure if we should scrap this concept just yet.  The articles present some very convincing evidence why this path maybe a waste of rare and valuable resources much of which is based on the lack of reproducible evidence.  There may not be enough conclusive evidence to justify reshaping an entire process however there is also not enough evidence to conclude that learning styles has no real merit.  If anything I believe that more evidence is needed. 

The author discusses several popular marketing instruments used to profile student’s learning preference.  Kolb’s is one such instrument, this inventory which categorizes the learning process into two dimensions, the preferred mode of perception and preferred mode of processing (Pashler, 2009).  The article identifies others as well most of which is caters to the overwhelming desire of the school systems to best serve our student.  The ever widening achievement gaps between, poor ethnic groups and the dominant culture are forcing school boards to not omit any possible remedy.  This notion of examining and then presenting instruction based on students learning styles has most of its bases in theory and observation.  Teachers as well as prominent psychologist have noted that student’s reception of information has a link to how the information is presented.  For example, if the learner is a ‘‘visual learner,’’ information should, when possible, be presented visually. We refer to this specific instance of the learning-styles hypothesis as the meshing hypothesis—the claim that presentation should mesh with the learner’s own proclivities. Most proponents of the learning-styles idea subscribe to some form of the meshing hypothesis, and most accounts of how instruction should be optimized assume the meshing hypothesis: p108-109 (Pashler, 2009).  The authors discuss Visualizer–Verbalizer Questionnaire (VVQ, which was a study that indicated evidence that student responded better to information that had visual ques rather than verbal. 

The article address several studies that have no conclusive or repeatable data which would support undeniable need to change current method of interventions based on learning styles of our students.  The article alludes to but does not specifically address a teacher’s particular teaching style.  Maybe the assessments must begin with the teacher to determine which student would benefit from a particular teacher.  There are several schools which give parents/students a personality assessment, prior to placing the students in a teacher’s classroom for the upcoming year.  I am not convinced that we need to abandon the research that support learning styles.  The bottom line is it comes to how do we best serve all of our students and if this proves to help some then we cannot abandon it.

Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., Bjork, R. (2009). Learning Styles Concepts and Evidence. Psychological Science, 9(4), 105-119.

Constructivism

How do we learn? Is knowledge an accumulation of truths which resides outside of the individual?  Constructivist would say absolutely not.  Constructivist understands that it is the individual which produces the knowledge.  The individuals make their own meaning based on belief and experiences.  Therefore if this is correct then there can be no absolute truths as defined by the constructivist.  The knowledge that is constructed comes from the individuals interaction between their existing knowledge or beliefs and the new ideas or situations they encounter.(Airasian, 1997).  What does this mean for teachers?  

What would a constructivist classroom look like?  Do kids just run rampant and whatever they come in contact with so long as it does no harm then is it all up for grabs?  To answer this question we look to the pioneers Piaget and L. S. Vygotsky. 

Piaget believes that the role of the teacher is two-fold, to create useful problems for the child to solve and provide counter examples that compel reflection and reconsideration of overhasty solutions.  The student becomes the researcher (Wadsworth, 1996b).

Piaget first profession was a research biologist, as a result he resolved that biological acts by organism are adaptations to the environment. These biological acts organize the environment.  Piaget did not separate biological development and cognitive development he saw both as the means for how organism adapt to the environment and organize experiences. (Wadsworth, 1996a)

Piaget explains that cognitive development has four distinct states, schema, assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium.  These are the adaptations that all organisms according to Piaget goes through.  The Schema is the primary stage which develops in infants, being able to distinguish what is a source of food and what is not.  As infants grow and are exposed to different stimuli their schemata also expands by assimilation.  New stimulus which has no familiarity causes the organism to create different schemata or new ones are called accommodation. Piaget concludes that the next level of cognitive development takes place due to conflict between accommodation and assimilation.  The organism need for balance or equilibrium precipitates analysis and organization(Wadsworth, 1996a).  Teachers that adhere to Piagetian perspective would function as a facilitator of learning.  They would create an environment in which a child’s schema would have an opportunity to expand.  As time progress the teacher’s role evolves into one that would then create the conflict between accommodation and assimilation necessary to establish balance.  Vygotsky agreed but felt that the teacher’s role should be  much more active.

L. S. Vygotsky “Mind in Society,” also believed that individual constructs meaning from experiences but differs from Piaget.  He presents a different perspective of how this knowledge is obtained. Vygotsky theorizes that there exist zones of development zone of proximal development (ZPD), as well as a zone of actual development. Vygotsky believed that the knowledge that a child acquires comes from their interaction with adults in their surroundings.  Learning takes place when a child is interacting with people in their environment.  The child internalizes these encounters, which become part of the child’s independent development.(Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky’s theory provides a platform for learning and development.  Learning and intellectual development begins long before kids begin school and can be expanded when the child’s learning is facilitated by knowledgeable adults.  Studies have shown that babies that are read to and exposed to stimulus learn and develop certain skills sooner.

He challenges many theories which dominate and to some extent continue to dominate the educational community.  Vygotsky recognize that there is no definitive methodological relationship between development and learning and therefore currents concepts are categorized into three theoretical positions. They are first learning is independent of development, second learning is development. 

This week we explored constructivism and the implication for teachers in our group.  See Caroline’s blog, http://carolinelearning610.blogspot.com/2011/11/piaget-vygotsky-and-implications-for.html.  Here we examined what these experts saw as the foundations for constructivism and where they differed.  We then examined what are the implications for teachers.  Here we examined a video classroom as well.  

What I want to conclude with is Airasian and Walsh article.  They caution us regarding the rush to implement constructivist classroom.  First of all teachers must be conscious of the difference between epistemology and the well thought out and manageable instructional approach.  There are no instruction for constructivist classroom . There are only methods designed to foster the student’s construction of knowledge. Teachers must also understand that this approach is not the only method in which students construct knowledge.  Teachers should understand the time required to implement a constructivist program.  Students as well as teachers must have time to practice  in a constructivist classroom. Teachers are initiators and facilitators, there are no absolute truths in a constructivist classroom. Student are no longer waiting for instruction but become true scientist, traditional Montessori classroom are examples.  Teachers must understand that knowledge  and understanding differs for each student.(Airasian, 1997).  

The evidence says that given the overwhelming gap which exist in the classroom has to be something has to be done. The constructivist model offers hope. Reteaching a society that is so concerned with accountability, and assessment will be interesting. 

Airasian, P., & Walsh. M. (1997). Consturctvist Cautions. Phi Delta Kappan, 444-449.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Interaction Between Learning and Development. In M. Cole (Ed.), Mind in Society (pp. 79-91). Cambridge, Mass, London England: Havard University Press.

Wadsworth, B. (1996a). Intellectual Organization and AdaptationPiaget's Theory of Cognitive and Affective Development Foundations of Constructivism (Vol. 5, pp. 13-20): Longman Publishers.

Wadsworth, B. (1996b). Introduction Piaget's Theory of Cognitive and Affective Development (Vol. 5, pp. 1-7): Logman.

Shame and Education

The Shame of American Education by B.F. Skinner’s article addresses the erosion of the quality educational system in this country.  This article addresses the flaws of ritualistic beliefs of human behavior and development.  Dr. Skinner states that our educational foundations are being eroded by a commitment to laymanship and to theories of human behavior which simply do not lead to effective teaching(Skinner, 1984b, 1984c).   The article points to concerns with inadequately prepared teachers, inadequate pay for teachers as well as a lack of respect for the profession. He also included in this list of concerns, the assumption that all students learn at the same pace.  Skinner even addresses a possible cause for our shame could be a result of the American culture. 

Admittedly, all of these concerns are justifiable problems which have contributed to the current state of education in America.  Therefore what if anything can be done?  Skinner believes that teachers should be certified to teach the subjects they teach (Skinner, 1984c) , considering the responsibilities of our teachers it is a crime what they are paid.  Many find the need to obtain additional jobs to support a family.(Skinner, 1984b).  Once we acquire the certified teacher equip them with the necessary resources to enable their success.  Support teachers with technology additional personnel and training.  The article indicates that a useful tool would be to create and implement program instruction.  This particular concept is usually met with some resistance.  Teaching is a skill, and many believe that programmed instruction has no value, not so states Dr. Skinner. 

Dr. Skinner indicates that the problem stem from negating how students learn and what they learn.  Dr. Skinner effectively addresses that students learn more than isolated facts; they learn how facts are related to each other; students relate that they are learning to what they already know. Success and progress are the very stuff on which programmed instruction feeds. This is the value if programmed instruction.  Students must not only learn but know that they are learning, so teachers must not only teach but know that they are teaching (Skinner, 1984c).   According to Skinner the solutions may lie in the following approach; (Skinner, 1984a)

·         Be clear about what is to be taught. 

·         Teach first things first. It is tempting to move too quickly to final products.  Skinner believe s that there are two useless goals for education "excellence and creativity.”

·         Stop making all students advance at essentially the same rate. Students are still expected to move from kindergarten through high school in 12 years, and we all know what is wrong: Those who could move faster are held back, and those who need more time fall farther and farther behind. We could double the efficiency of education with one change alone—by letting each student move at his or her own pace (Skinner, 1984b).  This maybe a very daunting task given the culture of our current educational system.  This would require a complete overhaul of the educational system that would require enormous resources, not to mention a shift of public understanding and acceptance of this new concept.

·         Program the subject matter. Skinner argues that in a well designed instructional program, students gobble up their assignments.

So how did we get here what caused the shift from believing that we had the greatest educational system to one in which we are now ashamed of? Public and media opinion believes that the cause of the problem is mediocrity.  Skinner challenges whether mediocrity is the problem but a rather a symptom.  Skinner at this point appears to shift in his position regarding education when discussing possible problems. 

Here he seems to abandon his position regarding allowing students to proceed at their own pace.  He seems to negate component which indicates that some students may need more time to learn concepts.  He discusses teaching more, in half the time.  So instead of students having twelve years, if the program is instituted properly then all should finish in less than the twelve years slated.  He lists several possible culprits for failings facing our education such as students, teacher, schools of education and culture.  He then questions how do you punish the culprits? Specifically how do you punish a culture?  Dr. Skinner points to punishment of culture is addressed in his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, culture that is not willing to accept scientific advances in the understanding of human behavior, together with the technology which emerges from these advances, will eventually be replaced by a culture that is(Skinner, 1984c).   This indictment regarding our resistance to technological change is profound.   I agree with Dr. Skinner that a good program of instruction guarantees a great deal of successful action(Skinner, 1984c). When students move through well-constructed programs at their own pace, the so-called problem of motivation is automatically solved.  Success and progress are the very stuff on which programmed instruction feeds. They should also be the stuff that makes teaching worthwhile as a profession (Skinner, 1984c). I believe that most teachers that enter the profession do so because of their desire to impact lives and society in a positive way.  Unfortunately our current system has constructed within it devices which allows for abuse and often control by those that are not responsible for implementation of the program.  Taxpayer have bought into the hype that kids are not learning and standardized test indicate that we do not compete competitively in the worlds academic arena.  We have created achievement gaps which in my opinion highlight our long neglect of the poor and under privilege kids.  All this has resulted in qualified teacher leaving the profession.  Dr. Skinner discusses burnout being a result of abusive kids.  I don’t believe that the burnout that teachers face is a result of abusive kids. I believe that the burnout teachers now face is due to the constant threat of losing their jobs or increased scrutiny to produce.  Teachers are more and more concerned with producing acceptable data rather than focusing on skills that allow students to progress at their own pace.  We live in society that expects and demands that children at the same age progress at the same pace.  Dr. Skinner discusses a better way.  Teacher must continue to love the profession, kids benefit when they have teacher that are prepared and capable of making a difference.  Society must get back to understanding what is truly important and doing what is best for our kids.

Skinner, B. F. (1984a). The Shame of  American Education. American Psychologist, 39(9), 947-954.

Skinner, B. F. (1984b). The Shame of American Education. American Psychologist, Vol. 39(No. 9), 947-954.

Skinner, B. F. (1984c). The Shame of American Education. American Psychologist, 39(9), 947-954.